Reviewing Homework During Class Time in a Selective Fashion Is an Example of a Pacing Issue

Abstruse

In a flipped classroom model, learning of basic content is shifted earlier class while in-class fourth dimension is used for concept application. Empirical and controlled enquiry studies are lacking on the all-time strategies to provide the necessary pre-form content teaching. In this report, we tested three methods of pre-class content learning—interactive online tutorials, video lectures, and textbook-manner readings—while holding the content and the in-form application activities constant. Identical introductory, non-majors biology classes were manipulated at both a public, open-enrollment institution and a private, highly selective establishment. Nosotros found that video lectures offer a small advantage to overall educatee learning over interactive tutorials or textbook-fashion readings. Although our two populations differed in their ability to effectively learn from pre-class activities, through a student-centered flipped classroom approach, students at both institutions demonstrated equal learning gains by the final assessment. Potential reasons for some observed differences are suggested.

Introduction

It is well known that active learning tin can reduce failure rates and increase pupil performance (Freeman et al. 2014), but many teachers struggle to observe the fourth dimension to incorporate active learning in the classroom. One potential strategy that has become pop is the "flipped classroom" model, where students learn basic content before class in the grade of instructional videos, recorded lectures, readings, etc. (Hamdan et al. 2013). And so, instructors spend time in class applying the material through complex problem solving, deeper conceptual coverage, and peer interaction (Strayer 2012; Tucker 2012; Gajjar 2013; Sarawagi 2013). Instructors use this model to meliorate cognitive load management of their students (Abeysekera and Dawson 2015), encourage greater independence of their students, and free grade time for active strategies (Seery 2015).

Inquiry has shown a generally positive effect of flipped classrooms on student attitudes and performance compared to a passive lecture model (Bergstrom 2011; Strayer 2012; Tune et al. 2013; O'Flaherty and Philips 2015; Seery 2015). However, while there is much research on how to use the recaptured class time for more than effective active (Roehl et al. 2013; Baepler et al. 2014; Hung 2015) and student-centered learning (Kim et al. 2014; McLaughlin et al. 2014), there is very fiddling research on how best to provide the necessary content teaching at home. For flipped instruction to exist successful, teachers must have confidence that their students learned the necessary data and skills for the active learning activities upon inflow in the classroom. This lack of clarity about the optimal out-of-class content instruction may exist one reason why teachers are hesitant to adopt flipped teaching.

In this paper, we report our findings about three dissimilar methods for providing at home content learning (interactive tutorials, video lectures, and textbook-style readings), in back up of flipped learning experiences. We also contextualize our findings according to various learning theories to better understand the pros and cons of these various approaches.

Literature Review

To provide context for this study, nosotros get-go review the research on flipped classrooms in full general, and then focus on strategies for out-of-grade content learning, including learning theories that can support these diverse strategies.

The Evidence on Flipped Classrooms

At that place has been much recent excitement over the concept of flipping classrooms to emphasize more mentored, agile learning during grade periods. Flipped classroom instruction is defined but every bit an instructional strategy where students larn content prior to class, allowing them to come up to class prepared and gear up for mentored, active, and experiential learning experiences (Hamdan et al. 2013). Abeysekera and Dawson's (2015) "lowest mutual denominator" definition of a flipped classroom suggests that the strategy must include 3 central components: (1) information-transmission outside of class time, (ii) class time dedicated to active, collaborative activities, and (3) student accountability for in-grade activities through pre- or post-form activities. This commencement piece, information-transmission, is almost always in the form of a pre-recorded lecture or screencast (Pierce and Pull a fast one on 2012; O'Flaherty and Philips 2015; Seery 2015; Zainuddin and Halili 2016). Other methods of pre-class content dissemination include readings, Blogs, Google Docs, Google Hangouts, and some interactive computer software programs such as MyITLab (Davies et al. 2013) or Integrated Learning Accelerator Modules (McLaughlin et al. 2014).

While inquiry into flipped classroom education, equally specifically defined, is recent, many positive furnishings have been institute, particularly for science educational activity (Fautch 2015; Tomory and Watson 2015) and students seem to similar the approach overall (Phillips and Trainor 2014; Jeong and González-Gómez 2016), often preferring information technology over traditional learning (Gilboy et al. 2015). About of this research has been in the K-12 realm (Leo and Puzio 2016; Olakanmi 2017), only other studies accept been conducted in higher education. In 1 instance, Long et al. (2017) conducted a qualitative instance written report assay of instructor experiences using this method and plant that instructors perceived that their students enjoyed this approach to learning. Indeed, for some, the motivation to flip their classrooms was considering of student dissatisfaction with traditional lecture approaches. The instructors also felt the method provided more active learning and better student support, simply a major challenge was that non all students learned the content on their ain to a sufficient degree earlier class in order to make the in-class activity constructive.

Schwarzenberg et al. (2017) conducted a quantitative study on flipped classroom effects and found like modest results. They institute slightly college achievement in the flipped classroom experience compared to conventional classes, but the blueprint of the flipped experience was important. In particular, Schwarzenberg et al. (2017) noted that in-class activities should focus on active learning and that the level of pre-course training from students was important—echoing the business organisation raised by Long et al. (2017).

Calculation further show, Davies et al. (2013) establish that a flipped classroom was more effective in teaching concepts than a simulation-based arroyo or traditional classroom arroyo for introductory information systems students; Zainuddin and Halili (2016) found in their meta-synthesis of 20 articles that flipped classrooms overall brought positive impacts on learning and motivation. Nevertheless, some scholars have plant more mixed results. Harrington et al. (2015) found no meaning differences in the learning outcomes for nursing students randomly assigned to either a flipped or traditional education style; Jensen et al. (2015a) found like results for introductory biology students between a flipped and non-flipped classroom. A systematic review of 21 nursing studies Betihavas et al. (2016) similarly found overall themes of neutral or positive academic outcomes and mixed results for satisfaction. These mixed results tin can lead to conclusions that flipped classroom tin be an effective strategy but that the real deviation may be in how flipped classrooms are implemented.

Indeed, in most of these studies, a central finding has been that the benefits depend on the ability of students to come to class well prepared in having learned the content and thus set up for the in-class active learning. The difficulty in preparing students to learn the content earlier class is amplified considering some students may lack the cocky-regulatory skills to learn content effectively on their own. Sletten (2017) asked 76 students in a flipped introductory biology course about their self-regulated learning strategy utilise and found that students largely preferred the in-form active learning just did non think highly of the out-of-grade video lectures. Sletten (2017) suggested that students may not be well prepared to learn independently via the out-of-course lecture videos. Still, Porcaro et al. (2016) similarly used screencast-recorded video lectures as the pre-class content learning in ii iterations of a hematology course just establish the vast bulk (89 and 93%) of students in their study to exist well prepared for class. This may indicate, of course, that dissimilar classes of students only respond differently to different video lectures, just information technology besides suggests that more research is needed into how, when, and why students engage securely with the out-of-class content learning critical to flipped learning success.

Variety of Strategies for Out-of-Form Content Learning

As mentioned above, many studies have noted that there is great variance in how well students learn content out of form, which is crucial to the overall success of the flipped classroom model. However, surprisingly few studies have discussed the various methods for teaching this out-of-class content. Some studies have shown benefits of video tutorials (eastward.g., He et al. 2012; Kay and Kletskin 2012), and indeed video tutorials or lectures seem to be the most common method. Withal, simply ane systematic, controlled comparison has been fabricated between various pre-class content delivery methods to decide which is most effective for student learning (Moravec et al. 2010), and in this study, the instructors but implemented three flipped class sessions in an otherwise not-flipped semester to investigate performance differences between students taught outside of class via video lectures versus readings.

Another strategy for out-of-classroom instruction is to utilize interactive tutorials. This strategy is based in Constructivist theory (Dewey 1938; O'Donnell et al. 2006)—the idea that students are not empty buckets to be filled with knowledge simply rather that students must construct knowledge for themselves (Piaget 1985; Lawson 2002). This construction of knowledge is a process of dynamic equilibration or interaction between an private and their environs, where innate mental structures are reorganized every bit gaps and contradictions are recognized (O'Donnell et al. 2006).

Allowing students to work through the information in interactive tutorials, rather than telling them the information, tin influence conceptual development by posing critical cognitive disharmonize that disturbs equilibrium and forces the individual to restructure their cerebral architecture (Pulaski 1980; Damon 1984; Doise and Mugny 1984; Kubli 1989; Lumpe 1995). However, students quite oftentimes do not recognize the gaps or contradictions in their knowledge, or they may recognize them but choose not to act upon them (O'Donnell et al. 2006). This recognition and call to activity tin can occur past designing materials to promote educatee construction of knowledge, which forces students to search for equilibration and drive cognitive development (Pulaski 1980).

Alternatively, utilizing video lectures allows instructors to tap into two modes of information processing, both visual and auditory. Dual coding theory (Paivio 1990) provides a theoretical framework for how differing content (video or readings) is processed by the student. Co-ordinate to this theory, the more than sensory pathways that a student can utilise to interact with the material, the more probable they are to remember the content (Clark and Paivio 1991). Past laying downwards two memory traces to the information, exact and image, the information is more accessible to the learner (see Thomas 2014 for a review). Yadav et al. (2011) suggested that video may be a more powerful medium for cerebral and affective processing compared to text reading lonely, because auditory and visual data are redundant bisensory stimuli that collectively contribute to learning (Moreno and Mayer 2002).

In improver, motivational theory (Keller 1983) may likewise explain the success of videos. In Keller's theory, motivational factors include relevance, attention, confidence, and satisfaction; the latter 3 factors are especially applicable for video lecture success. To gain attention and satisfaction, a video lecture may include quick and concise bonny images or animation which can serve every bit entertainment (Keller 2009). Farther, learning the material via online video lectures can boost a student's conviction past using a medium of commitment to which they may be accepted in their personal lives—online videos. Using this model, students may exist more motivated to learn if their education includes the attending-grabbing technology with which they are familiar in everyday life, potentially leading to greater learning gains.

Lastly, textbook-style readings are frequently used by instructors to offer a short, easy-to-skim, straightforward delivery of low-level content. Textbooks are the backbone of virtually every college course, they are easier to read than primary literature, and they are perceived by both instructors and students as an integral part of the learning experience (see Besser et al. 1999). Not only are textbook readings easily searchable (as opposed to a video lecture), but because of their brevity, it may be possible that students tin hands access them repeated times getting more exposure to the material. In fact, textbooks are oft the source of the majority of student studying (Besser et al. 1999). Textbooks may in fact be the modality to which students have been most exposed, having been a key attribute of instruction for centuries. However, this treatment, in the flipped format, differs from the traditional classroom where reading is assigned before form and educatee responsibility is not enforced considering the teacher lectures on the same content included in the pre-grade reading (He et al. 2016). In traditional non-flipped courses, students oftentimes do not read the consignment (e.thou., Sikorski et al. 2002; Clump et al. 2004), especially weaker students (Phillips and Phillips 2007). In a flipped classroom, nonetheless, student accountability for completing the reading before class is oft built in through pre-class reading assignments.

All three of the above-described content learning methods, situated before active face-to-face course time, attach to the definition of a "lowest mutual denominator" flipped form. In this study, we compare these three strategies for out-of-classroom content learning in a flipped classroom approach while keeping in-class awarding activities the aforementioned. Our research question is, what is the differential effectiveness of these strategies? Answering this question about pre-class content learning can address an important piece of the flipped model, allowing for practical recommendations for the best method for implementing a flipped classroom.

Methods

Subjects

To investigate the mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of content learning methods during the "at home" content attainment phase of a flipped classroom, we collected data from 657 undergraduate students enrolled in non-scientific discipline majors general biological science courses at two large institutions in the Western Usa. One establishment is a large private university (~ 30,000 students) with highly competitive admission criteria reflected by incoming freshman average high school grade point average (GPA) of 3.8 and an average American College Examination (Human action) score of 28.3 in 2014. Information technology will futurity be referred to as the "private institution." The 2d institution is a big public university (~ 32,000 students) with open-enrollment and an incoming freshman average loftier schoolhouse GPA of 3.27 and an average Human action score of 23 (nerveless from a random sample of cocky-reported data from 250 students in an introductory biology course). It will hereafter be referred to as the "public institution."

Iii instructors participated in the data collection, ane at the individual institution and 2 at the public institution (Table ane). Due to unbalanced sample sizes (Table 1), redundant treatment sections inside the same public institution, but taught by different instructors, were combined. The determination to pool these data was supported by a lack of difference between instructors at the public institution within the common treatment for each dependent variable (Explore Assessments, p = 0.34; Utilize Assessments, p = 0.46; Final Exam, p = 0.44). Instructor 2 conducted the Video Lecture treatment (Table 1); however, we opted not to include these data in our assay. The decision to exclude this course was made prior to completion of the semester (i.eastward., before summarizing the data) after three independent instructors interacted with the class and determined that information technology was anomalous in its lack of engagement and motivation; thus, we predictable that whatsoever notable difference may exist attributed to this larger form personality rather than a treatment upshot. Students enrolled in the grade at both institutions are mostly not-science majors and range from freshman to seniors.

Tabular array 1 Experimental setup

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Quasi-Experimental Design

Nosotros used three treatments or modalities of pre-form content teaching. Each treatment represented a flipped classroom just the method of learning of material earlier class (i.east., at dwelling house) varied. The treatments, replicated by each teacher (Table 1), are described below.

While the strategy for didactics pre-class material differed depending on the treatment, all content and in-grade activities were identical among all treatments. Form time was dedicated to concept application activities in peer groups to apply the material explored in the pre-class activities. Pre-form material was not re-presented during class to encourage students to rely upon their online assignment for course training.

Fig. 1

Three treatment conditions on sex-linked inheritance: Interactive Tutorials posed questions and solicited feedback from students; Video Lectures consisted of the same material just was presented past i of the instructors in a video format; and Textbook-style Readings consisted of the same material just was written in the class of a textbook passage; the latter two treatments required no interaction by students

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Curriculum

To assess which method for learning out-of-course content was most effective in our study classrooms, we designed iii contrasting methods for the "at home" portion of instruction: interactive tutorials, video lectures, and non-interactive, textbook-style readings (Fig. 1). Identical curricular materials were developed collectively past the three instructors and used at both institutions. In all curricular materials, we used a learning cycle (Bybee 1993), constructivist approach utilizing the 5 Es: (1) Engage and (ii) Explore, where students are initially given the opportunity to wrestle with the concepts and build their own understanding; (3) Explicate, during which students are introduced to the terms for which they have built meaning; (four) Elaborate, where students apply the content to new situations; and (5) Evaluate, during which students participate in both formative and summative assessments. In our blueprint, Engage, Explore, and Explain occurred during pre-form activities at habitation, and we collectively referred to as "Explore" activities. Additional Explanation and Elaboration activities took identify in class and are collectively referred to as "Apply" activities. Evaluation occurred both straight following every pre-class action at home (41 Explore Assessments) and at the stop of each unit, roughly every 2 weeks (eight Employ Assessments).

Content quality and quantity of pre-form activities was controlled past using essentially identical scripts and examples to focus on the method of learning as well equally the constructivist active nature among the three treatments. Certainly, the interactive tutorials were more active than the other two treatments; even so, the constructivist nature (i.eastward., exposing students to a puzzling miracle and reasoning through it before introducing terminology and explanations) was conserved in all three treatments. Students were assigned to treatments based on their department enrollment utilizing a quasi-experimental blueprint.

Students completed all pre-class assignments online, in 1 of the three modalities, utilizing content designed with online survey software (Qualtrics© 2015, Provo, UT) linked through their learning direction system (LMS). Completion of these assignments was incentivized with course credit. Following each pre-form assignment, all students took an identical Explore Assessment that covered cloth introduced in the pre-form activities, irrespective of treatment. These were short, online quizzes written at mostly low levels of Blossom'southward Taxonomy of Learning (87% Retrieve and Sympathise). We asked students to complete a first attempt of these Explore Assessments without the aid of any notes or information, telling them that they should employ information technology as a way of testing their ain cognition. Following the first attempt, students were given unlimited open-annotation attempts to achieve 100%, if they so desired. The number of attempts was recorded for assay.

Items on these assessments were assigned to levels of Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom 1984) past two independent raters trained in Bloom'south and familiar with the curriculum. "Recall" and "Understand" items were categorized as "Low-Level" questions; "Utilize" items and above were categorized equally "High-Level" items. Raters independently rated the items, discussed differences in ratings, and came to agreement such that inter-rater reliability was 96.4%.

Roughly every 2 weeks, Utilise Assessments were administered online through the LMS. These eight Apply Assessments included questions at a variety of Bloom's levels with 65.viii% being Apply or in a higher place. Apply Assessments were open-annotation, merely students only had a single attempt and a limit of 60 min to complete information technology. Apply Assessments were non comprehensive merely focused on the material presented since the previous Apply Assessment. A single, comprehensive final cess was administered either in class or in a proctored testing center with a time limit of ii h and was closed-note. However, students were allowed one folio of notes (8.5 in. × xi in. sheet of paper) that they personally constructed and upon which they were immune to put whatever information they deemed necessary for the exam. The terminal cess contained 63% high-level questions and 37% low-level questions.

While the assessments, in-course activities, and pre-class content were identical in all classes, the teaching method of pre-class content differed by treatment. The three modalities are described below. Excerpts from each treatment for ane representative topic are shown in Fig. ane.

Interactive Tutorials

These online activities were designed to exist active and constructivist in nature (Piaget 1985). Frequent, embedded questions required students to brand hypotheses, clarify data, depict conclusions, and make connections. The online organization prevented students from advancing forward in the assignment until they answered each question. Assignments were graded for completion and full general accuracy, to ensure that students were actively and meaningfully participating in the activity. Periodic brusque video clips or readings were included that were identical to the other two treatments, yet students in this treatment often needed to brand predictions, collect information, and draw conclusions on their own.

Video Lectures

As is more than traditional for the flipped classroom (eastward.k., Pierce and Fox 2012; O'Flaherty and Philips 2015; Seery 2015; Zainuddin and Halili 2016), this condition consisted of video lectures recorded of two of the participating instructors, post-obit an essentially identical script equally the interactive tutorials and textbook-way readings. In this case, however, the students watched a video of the teacher talking over a slideshow and visuals depicting the same information every bit the other two treatments. Full video run-fourth dimension ranged from 15 to 45 min, and the longer videos were divided into multiple shorter videos. Students were awarded credit for only watching the video (as measured by viewing the page with the weblink to the video file) and were not required to interact with any of the cloth.

Textbook-Style Readings

This condition was designed to innovate the same textile but in a much less interactive fashion. Patterned to resemble a textbook passage, students read the textile without interacting with it (i.due east., no input or answers were requested from students during the assignment). Students were awarded credit for viewing all pages of the reading assignment. The material was presented in the same social club and the aforementioned questions were posed as in the other treatments. However, unlike the interactive tutorials, answers to all questions were immediately provided as part of the assignment, rather than requiring students to remember and answer the questions on their own. While this treatment did include some images or curt videos, visuals were considerably fewer in this method than the other two.

Measures

Covariate

To exam for grouping equivalence and control for potential differences that may exist due to our quasi-experimental pattern, Lawson's Classroom Test of Scientific Reasoning (LCTSR; Lawson 1978, ver. 2000) was used as a covariate in all treatments. The LCTSR is a content-independent assessment of scientific reasoning ability that has been positively related to operation in biological science courses (Johnson and Lawson 1998; Lawson et al. 2000b, 2007). The LCTSR was graded on a 24-bespeak scale. Scoring procedures, validity, and reliability of the test are discussed in Lawson et al. (2000a).

Dependent Measures

To determine the effect of learning pre-class content using each method, we analyzed pupil performance in three ways. First, we used the average first endeavor score of 41 pre-class Explore Assessments for each pupil. Second, we averaged eight Apply Assessment scores for each student. Finally, we used the comprehensive last examination score. All assessments (41 Explore Assessments, 8 Utilize Assessments, and the concluding) were identical for all treatments across both institutions, based on a mutual set of learning outcomes.

In an endeavor to measure out how much effort students dedicated to learning the material on their own prior to form, and as a way to discover any deficiencies in learning between the methods (interactive tutorials, video lectures, or textbook-way readings), nosotros analyzed the number of attempts that students took on the Explore Assessments. With unlimited attempts and the just feedback being their score (i.due east., they were not shown which items they missed nor which were correct), many students retook these Explore Assessments multiple times to earn a score as close to 100% before the deadline. Students' boilerplate number of attempts on the 41 Explore Assessments was our last response variable to mensurate effort.

Method of Analysis

A 2 × 3 analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted on all data combined with LCTSR every bit the covariate, using Institution (Public or Private) and Treatment condition (Interactive Tutorials, Video Lectures, or Textbook-style Readings) every bit between-subjects variables, to determine if the method by which content was learned afflicted functioning on each of the outcome variables: Explore Assessment first try scores, Explore Assessment number of attempts, Apply Assessment scores, and Concluding Exam scores. Postal service hoc analyses were done using a Bonferroni correction to account for blastoff aggrandizement.

Results

Scientific Reasoning Ability

LCTSR score distributions varied betwixt institutions (Fig. 2), with the private establishment having higher scores overall than the public institution (Chiliad _Private = 18.three, Chiliad _Public = 13.6, F(1, 655) = 128.64, p < 0.001, η _p ^two = 0.170).

Fig. 2

Boxplots of LCTSR scores by institution

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Explore Assessments

The get-go attempt on pre-course Explore Assessments, an indicator of content learned from the pre-class materials, differed past institution and handling. A 2 × 3 ANCOVA showed a meaning interaction between the handling and the establishment (F(2, 622) = half-dozen.87, p = 0.001, η _p ² = 0.022) (Fig. 3a). Multiple comparisons inside the primary treatment effect demonstrated meaning differences at the p < 0.017 level, our Bonferroni adjustment. At the individual institution, the Interactive Tutorial handling [M = 69.9, 95% CI (68.2, 71.6)] outperformed the Video Lecture treatment [Thousand = 67.6, 95% CI (65.6, 69.half-dozen), p = 0.016], while the Textbook-manner Readings [Grand = 68.9, 95% CI (67.four, 70.4)] treatment was not significantly different than either Interactive Tutorials or Video Lectures (p = 1.0, p = 0.058), respectively. Although this departure may be statistically significant, it may not be practically pregnant as the Interactive Tutorial improvement was roughly 0.14 points on an boilerplate seven-detail Explore Assessment. At the public establishment, none of the differences reached significance. The Video Lecture treatment [G = 63.3, 95% CI (58.ii, 68.4)] was not significantly different than the Interactive Tutorial handling [K = 55.7, 95% CI (51.7, 59.7), p = 0.027], and the Textbook-style Readings [One thousand = 59.4, 95% CI (53.nine, 64.9)] treatment was non significantly different than either Interactive Tutorials or Video Lectures (p = 0.124, p = 1.0), respectively.

Fig. three

Raw scores of iv dependent variables are shown by treatment condition at both a private (solid lines) and public (dashed lines) establishment. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals. Panel a shows average scores on the kickoff attempt of pre-course Explore Assessments. Meaning findings include a meaning interaction (p = 0.001) wherein only Interactive Tutorials are different betwixt institutions (p < 0.001). Panel b shows the average number of attempts students made on the pre-class Explore Assessments; the public institution students made significantly more attempts than the private establishment students on all treatments (p < 0.001). Panel c shows the average scores on Apply Assessments; no differences were plant to be significant. Console d shows the average scores on the Concluding Test; the Video Lecture Handling was significantly greater than the Interactive Tutorials treatment (p = 0.007)

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Explore Assessment Attempts

The number of attempts students took on the Explore Assessments, at both institutions, did not significantly differ by treatment (F(2, 622) = 0.06, p = 0.944). Nonetheless, there was a significant institution effect with students at the public institution taking significantly more than attempts [1000 = 8.5, 95% CI (vii.eight, 9.2)], than students at the private institution [K = 3.7, 95% CI (3.half-dozen, iii.8), F(1, 622) = 285.46, p < 0.001, η _p ² = 0.315] (Fig. 3b). In that location was no treatment by establishment interaction [F(2, 622) = 0.36, p = 0.696].

Apply Assessments

The method of content learning had no outcome on average Employ Assessment scores, with a non-significant handling result [F(2, 622) = i.28, p = 0.278] and institution result [F(1, 622) = 0.32, p = 0.571]. We also institute the handling × institution interaction was not significant [F(two, 622) = 0.06, p = 0.945]. At the private institution, students scored an average of 74.iv% [95% CI (72.8, 76.0)] in the Interactive Tutorials status, 78.3% [95% CI (76.3, fourscore.3)] in the Video Lectures, and 74.seven% [95% CI (73.1, 76.3)] in the Textbook-fashion readings condition. At the public institution, students scored an average of 68.iv% [95% CI (65.8, 71.1)] in the Interactive Tutorials condition, 70.7% [95% CI (65.8, 75.vi)] in the Video Lectures, and 68.0% [95% CI (63.3, 72.vii)] in the Textbook-way readings status (see Fig. 3c).

Last Assessment

The Concluding Assessment was comprehensive and meant to serve as a summative assessment of students' overall understanding at the conclusion of the form. A ii × 3 ANCOVA revealed a pregnant treatment effect (F(two, 622) = 4.69, p = 0.009, η _p ² = 0.015). Pairwise comparisons were performed with a Bonferroni correction such that significance was accepted at p < 0.017. The Video Lecture treatment [M = 69.iii, 95% CI (66.6, 72.0)] significantly outperformed the Interactive Tutorial treatment [1000 = 61.iv, 95% CI (59.4, 63.4), p = 0.007], and the Textbook-style Readings [G = 63.v, 95% CI (61.4, 65.6)] treatment was not significantly different than either Interactive Tutorials or Video Lectures (p = 0.647, p = 0.244), respectively. There was no significant result of institution [F(1, 622) = 0.67, p = 0.415], nor was the treatment × institution interaction significant [F(two, 622) = 0.01, p = 0.994] (Fig. 3d).

Discussion

In this study, we sought to explore differences in several of the most popular ways of flipping a classroom. Specifically, nosotros tested three strategies for facilitating pre-class content learning: encouraging pupil interaction with online textile at dwelling, having students watch videos of lecture, or assigning textbook-style readings. Three master findings surfaced from our work: get-go, video lectures announced to offer a small advantage to overall student learning; second, populations at unlike institutions differ in their preparedness to effectively larn from pre-class activities; and tertiary, despite this inequality in preparedness, both populations demonstrate equivalent learning gains after experiencing a student-centered, flipped classroom curriculum.

High-Stakes Outcomes

Although the method for content learning did non appear to differentially touch on student performance on our college-stakes unit exams (i.due east., Apply Assessments), video lectures appeared to offer a articulate advantage on the last summative assessment of the class, raising their course by an boilerplate of nearly viii percent points. This would be the divergence between a B+ and an A, a practically pregnant deviation. Both loftier-stakes assessments required students to both remember content (low-level items) but as well apply the concepts in a higher-club manner in over half the questions (high-level items). Appealing to a dual coding theoretical rationale (Paivio 1990), it is possible that, in students who are self-motivated or academically prepared enough to gain information in the independent fashion required in a flipped classroom, receiving information through both a visual and auditory road may have an condiment rather than competitive event in terms of information gain (Yadav et al. 2011). Besides, the combined sound and visual information may take contributed extra signaling to highlight of import information to the benefit of Video Lecture students above the other treatments (Mautone and Mayer 2001).

Across signals of the text inside the video (e.g., arrows, zooming into particular areas of a slide, or highlighting text), the teacher shown in the video frequently gesticulated, which can provide additional cerebral aids (Singer and Goldin-Meadow 2005). In improver, inflection patterns that we usually include in our spoken language patterns may have offered students additional unintended cues to important data or places to pause that encouraged thought, where these cues are largely absent from written passages which predominated both the Interactive Tutorials and Textbook-style Reading weather. Psychological research suggests that prosody in speech can convey the importance of phrases to students outside the actual lexical channel (i.east., the significant of the actual words existence spoken; Johar 2016). In other words, unconscious cues plant both in the tone, pitch, and tempo of our speech as well as in hand gestures or facial expressions, all visible throughout in the Video Lectures, often convey meaning to students in the course of normal dialogue. Video Lectures were the only method where human speech was present for pre-form delivery of content. Social Agency Theory posits that a human voice integrating into learning can increase student motivation (Mayer et al. 2003) and attentiveness (McLaren et al. 2011). Additionally, the presence of a human face has been shown to positively impact pupil learning through increased comprehension via the opportunity to lip read and auscultate positive social cues (Kizilcec et al. 2015). These benefits likely outweigh demonstrated drawbacks, distractions, or the presence of man agency during a lecture video (Schroeder and Traxler 2017). The combination of factors associated with a human pedagogical amanuensis could overtly influence the effectiveness of video lectures versus silent written text or short videos fix to music and lacking instructors' facial expressions and vocalisation, regardless of the considerable overlap in content.

In addition, due to the nature of the method, information may be more than easily re-accessed from textbook-mode readings and fifty-fifty the interactive tutorials as we originally hypothesized, but this access may be washed in a superficial manner. These were both available as easily skimmable pdf documents via their LMS afterwards the Explore Assessment deadline passed. Even so, to re-visit data for studying from a video lecture, students would necessarily have to re-lookout man the videos leading to unintended deeper processing. While students had control over pacing and replaying of the video, in this "learner-adulterate system-paced" instruction model (Schroeder and Traxler 2017), students had to brand decisions on where to render in the video and undoubtedly watched more than predictable. Nosotros suggest that through these more complete repeated visits to the fabric in preparation for the final exam, students in the Video Lecture status meliorate solidified their understanding over students in the other modalities.

Interestingly, among the loftier-stakes outcomes, the advantage of the video treatment was only observed in the Last Assessment and non the Apply Assessments. Both assessments were written with roughly the aforementioned proportion of high and depression Bloom level items, and both were timed. The key differences, nevertheless, were that the Terminal Cess was closed-note and comprehensive. We suspect that students likely revisited the videos, with more than unintended exposure, in grooming for the final, because they could non rely on notes and it may have been months since they originally learned the textile. In contrast, students may minimally or fail entirely to review pre-class content in preparation for Employ Assessments, assuming that they could access it during the cess, if needed, or that the material was learned recently plenty (inside ii weeks) to remember. Regardless of whether the video benefits prevarication in dual coding, extra cuing, or the presence of a man pedagogical amanuensis, certainly assuasive for greater exposure to more content through re-watching video content provides a long-term benefit to students in our sample.

Depression-Stakes Outcomes

Interestingly, when comparing initial attainment of materials from pre-class activities (using Explore Assessment scores, a largely depression-level cess format) from the three methods, a significant interaction emerged betwixt treatment and institution. At the individual establishment, although the Video Lecture treatment showed a slight disadvantage to an interactive tutorial, and this trend has precedence in the literature (Abeysekera and Dawson 2015), the differences were minimal (0.14 points on a 7-indicate assessment, a difference that would not probable change their grade) bringing into question whether information technology was practically significant. At the public institution, no method offered an reward or disadvantage for initial attainment of information. These Explore Assessments reflect the amount of learning (admitting, rather low-level) students achieved independently, which may reflect many things outside of content learning. Specifically, student performance may simply mirror students' prior noesis or their study strategies, which and so reveals a student's preparedness for college-level instruction or online learning. Enquiry shows that many students are less than prepare to engage in a flipped classroom upon entering college (Hao 2016). In fact, Yilmaz (2017) showed that a student'southward e-learning readiness was a direct predictor of their motivation in a flipped classroom. Perhaps at a highly selective institution, students' overall readiness to appoint independently in learning activities prior to instructor-scaffolded class activities makes the constructivist, interactive tutorial treatment more than successful in initial attainment. Whereas, at an open-enrollment establishment, the pre-class, content learning method seemed to have piffling effect on their success with scores existence consistently lower on initial attainment than the private institution, regardless of the manner of delivery. Dramatic differences in the number of attempts on Explore Assessments (i.e., significantly more in the public institution than in the private institution) provide further bear witness of differences in preparedness between institutions.

Population Differences

As was seen by pre-LCTSR scores, these institutions differed dramatically in students' incoming scientific reasoning ability. Scientific reasoning skills are tightly correlated with accomplishment in higher biology (e.g., Johnson and Lawson 1998; Lawson et al. 2007) and differ significantly between those who pursue Stem degrees and those who do not (Jensen et al. 2015b). Despite these differences in initial reasoning ability between our two institutions, no institutional differences were observed in final cess functioning. In other words, following completion of a educatee-centered, flipped biology course, students at the public institution reached indistinguishable levels of understanding on the summative final assessment as students from the selective private establishment. While students at both institutions benefited from the student-centered, flipped classroom arroyo (Strayer 2012; Tucker 2012; Gajjar 2013; Sarawagi 2013), information technology seems that lower performing, underprepared students may do good fifty-fifty more and tin achieve equal learning on the last grade assessment as higher-performing students.

Limitations and Futurity Directions

Results from this enquiry are intriguing, but they also create more questions to be answered. I of the limitations of this study is that it was conducted on only ii student populations. Nevertheless, one represented a more than selective, high-achieving group, while the other was more representative of an open-enrollment, public establishment, allowing two ends of a continuum to be tested. Both student populations lacked sufficient representation of underrepresented minorities leaving information technology open-ended as to whether social grouping may exist an interacting factor in the success of each model. Information technology is certainly worth farther study. Another potential limitation is that seventy% of the video lectures were prepared past one of the instructors of the courses with the other 30% being prepared by the 2nd instructor and 0% being prepared by the third instructor. This means that in some of the courses, the students watched video lectures past a professor other than their own. Whether this played a role in their engagement with the video is unknown.

Several causal mechanisms have been suggested for the advantage of video lectures. These causal mechanisms stand for time to come avenues for valuable research. For example, we suggest that extra cuing, through prosody of spoken language, may requite students an advantage in cuing them to of import information. Trials in which prosody is contradistinct may shed farther light on this mechanism. Additionally, the presence of a pedagogical agent in the videos may have played a role in the videos' success. Removing the pedagogical agent on screen and, instead, only including audio source material may shed light on this causal machinery. Lastly, one of the major causal mechanisms suggested is the unlike depth to which data may have been re-accessed in preparation for the final test. Monitoring re-access more closely may permit researchers to tease out this causal mechanism in more detail.

Conclusions

The overall effectiveness of a flipped classroom, in full general, may exist highly dependent upon the student population, which tin can vary in bookish preparation, scientific reasoning ability, or self-directed learning skills. Withal, we found that the method for pre-form content learning may play a differential office in effectiveness, with the Video Lecture strategy being superior to interactive or textbook-mode readings on final cess performance. Our findings are in contrast to Moravec and others' (2010) piece of work that detected no performance differences between video lectures and readings. Yet our report used flipped strategies throughout the unabridged semester, rather than three isolated days, which may amend represent what happens in a fully flipped classroom. Currently, our information cannot suggest a causal mechanism for this benefit and more enquiry of the benefits of video lecturing, compared to other flipped methods of "at domicile" content learning, is warranted.

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Acknowledgements

Piece of work for this manuscript was accomplished through a Loftier Affect Engaged Learning Grant at Utah Valley University.

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Affiliations

1. Department of Biology, Brigham Young Academy, 4102 LSB, Provo, UT, 84602, USA

   Jamie Fifty. Jensen & Jacob B. Sowards

2. School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Campus Box 92, Greeley, CO, 80639, The states

   Emily A. Holt

3. Section of Biology, Utah Valley University, SB 242M, Orem, UT, 84058, United states

   T. Heath Ogden

4. Department of Instructional Psychology and Technology, Brigham Young University, 150-H MCKB, Provo, UT, 84602, Us

   Richard E. West

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Correspondence to Jamie L. Jensen.

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Jensen, J.L., Holt, E.A., Sowards, J.B. et al. Investigating Strategies for Pre-Class Content Learning in a Flipped Classroom. J Sci Educ Technol 27, 523–535 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10956-018-9740-6

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• Published: 22 June 2018

• Issue Date: December 2018

• DOI : https://doi.org/ten.1007/s10956-018-9740-half dozen

Keywords

• Flipped classroom
• Undergraduate
• Agile learning
• Content learning

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